Commentary

It was noticeable just how arbitrary each platform seemed. With the exception of OpenBSD, every platform had several configuration settings to their defaults. This does not result in any warnings of errors. It is generally the result of things like JSON which used to be off by default, and had to be explicitly enabled, but is now on by default. I don't know of any reasonable way for maintainers to find out that they are redundantly setting things to their default values.

SELECT name AS name, SUM(abc) AS abc_count, two.name AS two_name
  FROM contacts, two;

SELECT name, email FROM contacts WHERE name = ? AND age < ?;

SELECT ?73, ?97;

SELECT :foo, $bar, @bam;

Details

Each entry shows what looked different to me as I did this by visual inspection looking at the default build rules for each platform. You can get more information by looking at https://www.sqlite.org/compile.html and I've left off SQLITE, ENABLE etc from the names. The most recent version of the platform is what I looked at,

You can use pragma compile_options on your own platform to see what is in use. SQLite can have different defaults between the plain library and the cli making this a little more confusing.

How hard could it be?

Unicode aims to have one way of representing human text for computers. Before its widespread adoption, different computer systems and even programs had completely different and very incompatible ways of representing text, and it was a mess to read, write, print, copy, and backup text.

This is an extraordinarily hard problem to solve. Are upper and lower case A` the same letter? What about bold, and italic? What about rotated? Fonts? Is ß a different letter or just a different way of drawing two lower case s? Ligatures? Is a lower case e in French without an accent the same as e in English? Is Roman numeral ⅰ different than i? That barely scratches the surface of Western Europe, and now throw in the whole world with a rich diversity and history of writing. Thankfully experts have been working on this for several decades.

Codepoints

Unicode assigned a number (codepoint) per "letter". This doesn't work because some writing systems use a base letter (eg a consonant) and then add marks on the letter (eg vowels), and having one codepoint for each combination would be a very large number.

This led to combining codepoints that could modify a base, allowing adding accents, vowels, and other marks to represent human writing,

The fateful decision

There were two possible ways of representing these values - for example letter-e and combing-acute-accent

Modifier first

combing-acute-accent then letter-e

Base first

letter-e then combing-acute-accent

If modifier first had been chosen, then each letter as perceived by a human (ie with all the modifiers applied) would be easy to determine by computer code - accumulate modifiers until you find a base. You now have one user perceived letter (aka grapheme cluster).

Base first was chosen. That means code sees a codepoint, but has to keep looking ahead to see if there are more modifiers that apply to the base. It gets way more complicated with zero width joiners, variation selectors, regional indicators, and Indic syllabic categories to name a few.

The consequences

Because of the complexity, most programming languages just pretend that each codepoint is one "letter" and takes one unit of storage, but often worse (well worth a read) conflating byte encoding, grapheme clusters, and indexing. They then require third party libraries to get words, sentences, and line breaking.

I've been adding support for SQLite's full text search to APSW (my Python SQLite wrapper) and it became very clear very quickly that doing things properly was necessary.

SQLite has a unicode61 tokenizer but it works on individual codepoints and their categories on a version of Unicode from 2012 (to remain stable, and Lite). It doesn't implement any rules for words other than whitespace and punctuation which makes it unsuitable for the languages used by billions of people. It also doesn't handle regional indicators, variation selectors, zero width joiners, some emoji etc.

There is a standard International Components for Unicode library available that deals with all the Unicode rules, text segmentation, locale specific customisation, message generation, and localization. It is available as a 5MB Python binding, to the 5MB of code and 30MB of tables making up ICU. ICU isn't installed on every platform, and when it is you have no control over the version.

The ICU solution is also impractical to distribute for cross platform libraries like APSW, so I decided to implement the rules. My final self contained library was 500kb of code and data with no platform dependencies.

Lessons learned

There are three sets of rules covering grapheme cluster, words, and sentences, and another set for line breaking.

I ended up rewriting/refactoring my code six times, learning a lot as a result.

Performance

Performance matters because these are used for full text indexing, which could be hundreds of megabytes if not gigabytes of text. There is no point in doing a C Python extension unless it performs well. So here is a benchmark. The source text is the UN Declaration of Human Rights which has been translated into 300 languages. All 300 are concatenated together producing a 5.5MB file. 60 codepoints used in many of the TR14/29 tests are combined and repeatedly shuffled with the source text, and appended until there are 50 million codepoints.

For each library, how long it takes to process that text and return each segment is measured, producing a codepoints per second result. Note that this is measuring both how long it takes to find each break location, as well as how long Python takes to return that substring/segment of text.

ie more codepoints per second is better.

Benchmarking apsw.unicode         unicode version 15.1
grapheme codepoints per second:    5,122,888    segments:  49,155,642
    word codepoints per second:   13,953,370    segments:   9,834,540
sentence codepoints per second:   93,699,093    segments:     909,603
    line codepoints per second:   16,840,718    segments:   9,548,987

Benchmarking uniseg               unicode version 15.0.0
grapheme codepoints per second:      567,514    segments:  49,149,753
    word codepoints per second:      570,943    segments:  23,617,670
sentence        EXCEPTION KeyError('OTHER')
    line codepoints per second:      528,677    segments:   9,545,722

Benchmarking grapheme             unicode version 13.0.0
grapheme codepoints per second:    1,777,689    segments:  49,163,151

Benchmarking pyicu                unicode version 15.1
grapheme codepoints per second:    3,778,235    segments:  49,155,642
    word codepoints per second:    8,375,000    segments:  20,050,729
sentence codepoints per second:   98,976,577    segments:     910,041
    line codepoints per second:   15,864,217    segments:   9,531,173

Here are the size measurements adding together Python bytecode and any stripped shared libraries.

 32kb    grapheme
144kb    uniseg
600kb    apsw.unicode (can be 200kb smaller)
 40mb    pyicu

Table unrolling

The tables end up with each row containing three integer fields:

• Start codepoint
• End codepoint
• Category

Everybody stores them sorted, and then uses a binary search to find the row matching a codepoint. There are 2 to 4 thousand rows in each table meaning up to 12 comparisons are needed to find a particular row, which is negligible to a CPU.

The contents of the tables are known at compile time, and do not change. That led me to thinking that instead of generating tables, I could generate the comparisons instead. (This is similar to loop unrolling).

The resulting compiled code turned out to be smaller than the corresponding data tables, so I went with that. (It is even branch predictor friendly which tables are not.) The densest compilation results in code about 60% the size of tables, while 16 byte aligned is around 95% (but with lots of padding nops).

msvc defaults to densest and shaves 200kb off the binary size, while clang and gcc both do alignment. Examining the assembly code showed that it matched the comparisons.

Unicode 16 update

Unicode 16 came out in September, and I eagerly updated to it. The updates to codepoint tables were all easily handled. There were no rule changes to TR29 segmentation, and all tests passed.

TR14 line breaking did have rule changes which were fairly painful to implement in my C code. The compile test debug cycle is far slower and less ergonomic than almost anything else. The code is analogous to implementing regular expressions by hand while doing lookahead and backtracking, and you often need to figure out what particular rules did match but shouldn't have, or vice versa.

That leads me to one big lesson learned/suggestion for anyone else implementing the TR14 & TR29 rules:

Do not write code directly - always use an intermediate

representation that you generate code from, or interpret directly at

runtime.

It will make the development process a lot more pleasant, but also

allows tailoring the rules for different locales.

I should have realised this originally, but my Python implementation was productive. The Unicode consortium developers figured that out, and this is used for the C/Java library, while this is used for the Rust library. I am amused that they use a completely different syntax.

Looking back

It has been two years since I ended Python 2 and early Python 3 support. While I was proud that you could continue to use any Python version of the previous two decades with corresponding SQLite versions and have your code continue to work without maintenance, it isn't how modern software development works.

Components interact with other components, which in turn do the same. There are many additional tools such as build systems, test systems, documentation generation, and cloud based full scale system integration verification. It is practically impossible to make all versions of all the things work with all the other versions of the other things, even if my little corner did.

I ended up with a simple end of life policy - I do one more release after a particular Python version goes end of life. That means APSW will not be the weak link.

Opportunity

Only supporting modern Python versions let me delete a bunch of C and Python code, and some documentation. Non developers may not realise it, but one of the great joys of being a developer is when you get to delete stuff. That frees up brain space for better things. The last things removed were some documentation saying that strings are Unicode (a legacy of Python 2), and removing the u prefix from some strings (like u"hello world") for the same reason. It felt good.

I could also take advantage of dataclasses in Python code and FASTCALL in C code. This week I greatly appreciated the walrus operator in some new code. I even had problems in some example code that needed Python to consume a noticeable amount of CPU time, but performance enhancements made that more difficult!

Most important code

If you change code for the better, there is always a probability you will have broken something else without realising it. This is why developers are wary of changing code, instead adding more, or copying and pasting.

That makes the tests the most important code by far. APSW's test code is a similar size to the C code, and tries to exercise all possible routes through the C. In addition to checking everything works, far more effort is expended on doing everything wrong, and ensuring that all combinations of problems that could happen do happen.

That thoroughness of the test code is what made it possible to reduce and improve the code base. It would have been essentially impossible otherwise.

When a new API is added to SQLite, my rough estimates on effort are:

• 5% - Calling the API
• 15% - Adding error handling, especially all the things that could go wrong. More on this below.
• 5% - Updating documentation
• 75% - Updating the test suite, exercising all the paths, running under all the validation tools and analyzers

Most important code, part 2

It may not seem like much, but most of the start of C functions looks like this:

/** .. method:: __init__(filename: str,
                         flags: int = SQLITE_OPEN_READWRITE | SQLITE_OPEN_CREATE,
                         vfs: Optional[str] = None,
                         statementcachesize: int = 100)

Opens the named database ...

Of course that isn't code - it is a comment before the actual C code. It serves many duties.

Documentation

I use Sphinx for documentation, and that text ends up in the documentation in restructured text format.

Docstring

All Python objects have documentation, easily done in Python code. For C implemented objects the text has to be available to the C compiler, so the text is extracted and available in a header file processed to keep within C syntax.

Text signature

C objects can have a __text_signature__ used by inspect which is in yet another format with dollar signs and no return types. This StackOverflow answer has some more details.

Argument parsing

The str and int and default values are all relevant when you need C values to call into SQLite (const char *, and int or long long respectively). I used to use PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords which takes a format string with many Python extras, and escapes for your own conversions. Because the format string could disagree with the documented string, I have a tool that converts the comment into the correct defaults and formats. When I adopted FASTCALL it was then a simple matter of generating code to do the parsing directly. It also meant I can produce far better clearer error messages. (There is a Python internal use tool that is similar.)

Type stubs

For Python code implemented in C, you can provide type stubs which are Python syntax for those C implemented items. I discovered that Visual Studio Code would display any docsrings included with the typing information, so the APSW type stubs include that too. When editing Python code, you can't tell that APSW is implemented in C.

That is a lot of heavy lifting for some "code".

MVP tool: cvise

cvise is a tool that takes a C file known to cause a problem, and reduces the size while verifying it still causes the problem.

While reworking the code base, I could easily detect problems. There are many places where C code calls Python which calls C code which calls Python, with the flow going through CPython's internals, APSW's code, and SQLite's code. All 3 projects have copious amounts of assertion checking so it is easy to detect something has happened that shouldn't.

I'd be able to cause problems using my 10,000 line test suite, but to narrow down and understand it you want a lot less, ideally less than 10 lines. Trying to do so manually is tedious and time consuming, and often the actual nature of the problem is different than you think it is.

cvise takes a --not-c flag, so I could feed it my test suite, which would rapidly hack it down to just enough to still reproduce the problem. It was always surprising and delightful, because doing that manually is very tedious.

CPython API

There has been a lot of work behind the scenes to clean up the APIs. I ended up with backport code to make newer apis available on older supported Pythons.

My favourite has been Py_NewRef which let many places go from two lines of code to one, and is also easy to search for.

// Old style - convenient but slow making a Python tuple
PyObject_Call(object, "lssL", updatetype, databasename, tablename, rowid);

// New style - directly put arguments in a C array
PyObject *vargs[] = {NULL,
                     PyLong_FromLong(updatetype),
                     PyUnicode_FromString(databasename),
                     PyUnicode_FromString(tablename),
                     PyLong_FromLongLong(rowid)};
if (vargs[1] && vargs[2] && vargs[3] && vargs[4])
  PyObject_Vectorcall(object, vargs + 1, 4 | PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET, NULL);

Error handling

Writing code in Python is delightful. You don't have to worry about errors, and in the rare circumstances they happen, your program is stopped with an exception. You can add code at whatever level of the call hierarchy is most relevant if you want code to handle future occurrences.

In C code it is a totally different matter. Different APIs return error information in different ways. Errors have to be handled immediately. As an example, here is the code to get SQLite's compilation options in a Python list of strings - a total of 4 lines of code.

PyObject *list = PyList_New(0);
for(int i=0; sqlite3_compileoption_get(i); i++)
  PyList_Append(list, PyUnicode_FromString(sqlite3_compileoption_get(i)));
return list;

Now lets add error checking, and it has grown from 4 to 14 lines.

PyObject *list = PyList_New(0);
if(!list) // error indicated by NULL return
    return NULL;
for(int i=0; sqlite3_compileoption_get(i); i++)
{
    PyObject *option = PyUnicode_FromString(sqlite3_compileoption_get(i));
    if(!option) // error indicated by NULL return
    {
        Py_DECREF(list);
        return NULL;
    }
    int append = PyList_Append(list, option);
    Py_DECREF(option);  // list took a reference or failed
    if(append == -1) // error indicated by -1 return, or non-zero?
    {
        Py_DECREF(list);
        return NULL;
    }
}
return list;

Lots of repeated cleanups in error handling, so we resort to goto. It is the same number of lines of code, but a more useful pattern for more complex code when there are far more items needing cleanup.

PyObject *option = NULL, *list = PyList_New(0);
if(!list)
    goto error;
for(int i=0; sqlite3_compileoption_get(i); i++)
{
    option = PyUnicode_FromString(sqlite3_compileoption_get(i));
    if(!option)
        goto error;
    int append = PyList_Append(list, option);
    if(append == -1)
        goto error;
    Py_CLEAR(option);
}
return list;

error:
Py_XDECREF(list);
Py_XDECREF(option);
return NULL;

Note how doing error handling in C triples the code size, and this is calling one simple API. I estimate that around 75% of the C code in APSW is error handling. Here are the top 10 goto label names illustrating the point:

• 157 finally
• 75 error
• 57 pyexception
• 39 fail
• 18 param_error
• 11 end
• 8 errorexit
• 5 error_return
• 3 success
• 3 out_of_range

PyObject *list;
FAIL("CompileList", list = PyList_New(0), list = PyErr_NoMemory());

 1 #define PyList_New(...) \
 2 ({                                                                                                                                 \
 3     __auto_type _res_PyList_New = 0 ? PyList_New(__VA_ARGS__) : 0;                                                                 \
 4                                                                                                                                   \
 5     _res_PyList_New = (typeof (_res_PyList_New))APSW_FaultInjectControl("PyList_New", __FILE__, __func__, __LINE__, #__VA_ARGS__); \
 6                                                                                                                                   \
 7     if ((typeof (_res_PyList_New))0x1FACADE == _res_PyList_New)                                                                    \
 8       _res_PyList_New = PyList_New(__VA_ARGS__);                                                                                  \
 9     else if ((typeof(_res_PyList_New))0x2FACADE == _res_PyList_New)                                                                \
10     {                                                                                                                              \
11         PyList_New(__VA_ARGS__);                                                                                                   \
12         _res_PyList_New = (typeof (_res_PyList_New))18;                                                                            \
13     }                                                                                                                              \
14     _res_PyList_New;                                                                                                               \
15 })

Python type annotations

Python always let you rapidly develop code without having to be excruciating precise in details. Duck typing is wonderful. But there has been an increasing tension because there are more and more components to interact with, and there is greater version churn (see the start of this post!).

In the olden days you referred to a component's documentation and memorized what you used most frequently. That isn't practical any more. The question is "when do you want to know about problems in the code?" The answer is as soon as possible, as it gets more expensive (time, effort, and often money) the later you find out, with the worst case being once customers depend on it. Ideally you want to know as your finger rises from typing something.

Type annotations have let that happen, especially for simpler problems. There are annotations for all of APSW's C and Python code (except the shell which is on the todo list). I've found it quite difficult to express duck typing, and some concepts are impossible like the number of arguments to a callable depends on a parameter when some other function was called. But I appreciate the effort made by all the tools, and it does save me effort as I type.

You do however still get amusing error messages for correct code due to limitations of annotations and the tools. It is reminiscent of C++ template errors. I leave you with one example you should not read, deliberately left as one long line and a scrollbar.

example-code.py:95: error: Argument 1 to "set_exec_trace" of "Cursor" has incompatible type "Callable[[Cursor, str, Union[Sequence[Union[None, int, float, bytes, str]], Dict[str, Union[None, int, float, bytes, str]]]], bool]"; expected "Optional[Callable[[Cursor, str, Union[Dict[str, Union[None, int, float, bytes, str]], Tuple[Union[None, int, float, bytes, str], ...], None]], bool]]"

Why run your own?

Email was and remains a ubiquitous communications mechanism, both for people and automation. When I started running my own server there were very few providers, and they had very low limits. There would be restrictions on attachment sizes and formats, and developer emails would often be rejected as spam. There was little in the way of configurability of incoming email.

Running my own email server let me remove all the restrictions. I accepted emails up to a gigabyte in size because sometimes that was necessary in the days before Dropbox. I was able to have whatever processing rules I wanted, and had full insight into all of the details that were going on.

What do you need?

You need to have an entire system with several configurations and components all working together.

Static firewall

You can filter out countries, internet service providers, cloud providers etc that aren't worth even accepting connections from

Dynamic firewall

A second layer of filtering based on observed undesirable behaviour. For example IP addresses sending you spam can be filtered for a time period.

Spam control (generic)

Various techniques are used to stop spam no matter which user it is going to. For example greylisting is very effective, dcc and rbl tell you if other systems have seen the same message. I also filtered all messages through a virus scanner.

Spam control (user specific)

Spamassassin has many rules with weighting added together to come up with a per message score. It includes how similar the email is to previous emails you received, which you have classified as good or spam, plus many other rules.

Filtering rules

You want to make messages matching various criteria be placed in folders, forwarded, rejected etc using per user scriptable rules.

IMAP server

To actually read the email using email clients or the programs builtin to various desktop and mobile devices you need one of these.

Webmail

And sometimes you want to use a browser, so you need something that presents a web front end.

Mail transfer

This component receives incoming email, and sends outgoing.

Other

You need to ensure there are backups, have authentication, logging, monitoring, DNS records, SSL/TLS certificates etc. Some of the components can use or even require database servers.

Over time there have been open source software projects that address these needs, including more integrated ones that address many at once. There are a nice variety each in different sweet spots.

Exit review

It is a positive experience having to construct a working system. You are exposed to several components that have to work together, read lots of documentation, create configuration, and deal with upgrades and improvements. Seeing how others have addressed that makes you better at them too. I had a working system all those decades that served us very well.

The reality though is you are really running a spam detection and rejection system. There was a new attempt every 3 seconds never ending. Each one results in your system logging what happened and why, and you are acutely aware that overall you are putting more effort into controlling each spam message than the senders put into the message.

I've since switched to Fastmail (obligatory affiliate link). They have done all the work listed above, but I can still see what is happening as though it was my system. For example they too use Spamassassin. What is noticeable is just how many and how large the headers are on each message, almost all generated in the service of detecting spam. It is nice that it is someone else's duty to maintain now.

What does APSW support now ...

APSW supports every Python version 2.3 onwards (released 2003). It doesn't support earlier versions as there was no GIL API (needed for multi-threading support).

The downloads for the prebuilt Windows binary gives an idea of just how many Python versions that is (15). (Python 3.0 does actually work, but is missing a module used by the test suite.)

Each release does involve building and testing all the combinations of 15 Python versions, 32 and 64 bit environment, and both UCS2 and UCS4 Unicode size for Python < 3.3, on multiple operating systems.

There are ~13k lines of C code making up APSW, with ~7k lines of Python code making up the test suite. It is that test suite that gives the confidence that all is working as intended.

... and why?

I wanted to make sure that APSW is the kind of module I would want to use. The most frustrating thing as a developer is that you want to change one thing (eg one library) and then find that forces you to change the versions of other components, or worse the runtime and dev tools (eg compiler).

I never made the guarantee, but it turned out to be:

You can change the APSW (and SQLite) versions, and nothing else. No other changes will be required and everything will continue to work, probably better.

This would apply to any project otherwise untouched since 2004!

There are two simple reasons:

• Because I could - I do software development for a living, and not breaking things is a good idea (usually)
• I would have to delete code that works

What happens next?

I am going to delete code that works, but it is mainly in blocks saying doing one thing for Python 2, another for early Python 3, and another for current Python 3.

My plan is to incrementally remove Python 2/early 3 code from the Python test suite and the C code base together, while updating documentation (only Python 3 types need to be mentioned). The test suite and coverage testing will hopefully catch any problems early.

I will be happy that the code base, testing, documentation, and tooling will all become smaller. That makes things less complex.

Other thoughts

The hardest part of porting APSW from Python 2 to 3 was the test suite which had to remain valid to both environments. For example it is easy to create invalid Unicode strings in Python 2 which I had to make sure the test suite checked.

It was about 10 times the amount of work making the Python test suite code changes, vs the C level API work. Python 3 wasn't that much different in terms of the C API (just some renaming and unification of int and long etc).

How hard could it be?

I briefly tried using mobile apps and phone to scan. That turns out not to be useful with terrible capture quality and apps I did not like. I resorted to a well reviewed flatbed scanner (surprisingly cheap) and a separate slide scanner.

The process itself is simple - load scanner, press buttons, wait, repeat. You do have to have focus of efficiency - an additional 1 second per item would add 2 hours to the total scanning time!

I finished my own photos quickly - all 200 of them. Then I volunteered to scan all family photos which is where the totals came from. That total is about a quarter of the size of my digital photos collection taken in the last two decades.

A small selection of slides and photos awaiting scanning

What did I learn?

It was fun. The photos themselves are like a time machine, with the oldest from 1907. People used to get dressed up in the olden days for photos! But just like other people's vacation photos (which many were), the pictures are mundane unless you were there. The backgrounds were interesting because they showed how things were then.

What surprised me the most was the sheer number of different print sizes. There was absolutely no consistency or standardisation at all. The scanner will scan multiple photos at once providing there is enough gap between them. Most of my time was spent fitting as many as possible onto the glass, like a real world tetris.

The colour reproduction was not what I expected. I had expected fading and yellowing, based on age. There was very little of that, and what there was had no age pattern.

There were a few non-photo items such as newspaper clippings, and two school report cards from the 1930s. They considered deportment the primary subject to grade!

One correlation I did note was the amount of notes on the back of photos and slides. The older they were, the more writing there was. By the 1970s there was usually nothing while the 1930s would have copious information about where, who, and why. Another was how many photos of an event there would be. For example a kid birthday party in the 1950's might have one picture. steadily increasing to 30 or more in 1990s.

Any tips?

Keep your fingers very dry! Any moisture (eg condensation from a cold drink you just had a sip of) will cause photos to stick together (even more), or to the scanner glass.

I put the photos/sides after scanning into batches of 100, separately bagging them with a numbered label corresponding to the folder name. This is to make it easier to go from the digital scan to finding the physical photo and copy any notes across.

Bonus Time Machine: Rare Historical Photographs

Sizes

Slides were all the same size, with the actual image size being in metric and the cardboard frame being in inches! (There were about 10 slides that were a different size.) I plotted photo sizes and how many at each size.

The x axis is photo area, while the y axis is how many were at that size. Photos before the 90s usually had a white border, which the scanning software usually crops out. Sometimes it had writing, and in the 1950s would have the processing date.

Operating an airline

Simple: You spend vast quantities of people, money, and time. You will also outsource a lot. In return you will get back slightly more than you spent. In numbers it may cost you 12.4 cents per seat per mile flown, and you get back 12.6 cents per seat per mile, averaged across your entire operation.

The single most profitable thing is flying a full load of paying passengers, the bigger the plane the better. Until the 1990s a load factor of 65% was considered good. These days 90%+ is the target and that is usually the break-even point for a low cost carrier. Not filling your plane will lose you money, the bigger the plane the worse the loss.

The good news is that most expenses are proportional to flying time. For example the flight crew, cabin crew, fuel, maintenance, ATC fees etc are based on flight hours. Those expenses scale up with the size of the plane. Planes are flown for 8 to 12 hours a day, with bigger numbers being preferable.

Making planes

Simple: You spend vast quantities of people, money, and time. You will also outsource a lot. In return you will get back more than you spent, eventually, if the aircraft programme is successful.

There is a lot involved - this series covers it, and it is only in part 17 where you are actually designing an aircraft.

Lines of code is a useful but very imperfect metric for software. (It does correlate with effort, complexity, bugs, functionality etc though). The equivalent for aircraft is weight, and that is how aircraft size is often measured. Weight has to be added to carry fuel (how far you fly), to contain passenger seats, and for aircraft elements like wings, landing gear, pressure vessel, catering etc. And more weight means more expensive to manufacture, design, purchase and operate.

The most important part is the manufacturing stage. The more you do something the better you get at it, improving efficiency. The standard way of measuring this is to compare the cost to produce unit number n with unit number 2n - for example 10 vs 20, 50 vs 100, 500 vs 1,000. Aircraft manufacturing is around 77%.

An example were estimates the first Boeing 787 cost $2 billion to make. The machines had to be made, machines to make those machines, staff trained, procedures worked out, mistakes detected and prevented in the future etc. It would take close to 1,000 planes manufactured at that 77% improvement before the manufacturing cost meets the sale price listed earlier!

It is a careful choice of how much of the design and manufacturing to outsource. It isn't feasible to do all of it yourself. Outsourcing to specialists reduces your effort, reduces your control, but they also expect to get more of the rewards. The Boeing 787 programme tried significantly increasing the amount of outsourcing, and is a good case study.

Good sources

Leeham News and Analysis

Excellent coverage of airlines and manufacturers, with good in depth analysis.

Skyships Eng

Wikipedia has good textual pages for aircraft. This Youtube channel has discussion and video of commercial aircraft history and operations.

Cranky Flier

Covers airline operations. During the pandemic Cranky has shown how the airlines kept updating their schedules and routes. There are also interviews with airline executives, and airport operators.

The Aviation Herald

Covers daily operational incidents world wide. You get an idea of how often there are bird strikes, engine issues, tail strikes etc happen (about 4 a day).